Negative and positive electrical charge. Electron and proton

An electron is a stable negatively charged elementary particle.

Electrons play an important role in almost all physical effects. Because electrons carry a charge, they also generate an electric field. If you set an electron in motion, a magnetic field will arise. If an electron passes through another external electric field, its path changes under the influence of the Lorentz force.

The electron belongs to the lepton family of particles. There are several different families of particles listed in the standard model of particle physics.

Electron spin and electron magnetic moment.

According to the current level of knowledge, leptons are elementary particles. Compared to other leptons, the electron has the lowest mass among the charge-carrying leptons. He belongs to the first generation of leptons. The second and third generations are muon and tauon. These two particles have the same charges and spin as the electron, but differ from it in greater mass.

Leptons differ from other fundamental particles such as quarks in that they lack the strong force. All leptons belong to the fermion family, so the electron has its own torque (spin) s = ½ in units of ℏ, where ℏ is the reduced Planck constant).

“Like any charged particle with spin, an electron has a magnetic moment, and the magnetic moment is divided into a normal part and an anomalous magnetic moment (an addition of approximately 0.116%). Magnetic moment of the electron μe = -9.2847647043(28)⋅10−24 J/T. »

Wikipedia

Atoms and molecules.

Electrons are bound to atomic nuclei by an “attractive” Coulomb force. This composition of an atomic nucleus and one or more electrons is called an atom. Electrons move around the nucleus of an atom. If the number of electrons differs from the charge of the nucleus, then it is an ion.

The wave nature of bound electrons is described by atomic orbitals. Each of these orbitals has a number of quantum numbers, such as energy and momentum. In addition, an atom can only have a discrete number of orbitals. Due to the Pauli principle, an orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons, the spins of which have different signs.

Electrons are in the shell of an atom, protons are in the atomic nucleus

The chemical bond between atoms occurs due to electromagnetic interactions, which are described using quantum physics. The strongest bonds are created by sharing or transferring electrons. This allows molecules to form. In molecules, electrons move similarly to atoms and occupy molecular orbitals. However, the fundamental difference is the formation of pairs of electrons with different spins. This allows multiple electrons to occupy the same orbital without violating the Pauli principle.

Electric charge

It is impossible to give a brief definition of charge that is satisfactory in all respects. We are accustomed to finding understandable explanations for very complex formations and processes such as the atom, liquid crystals, the distribution of molecules by speed, etc. But the most basic, fundamental concepts, indivisible into simpler ones, devoid, according to science today, of any internal mechanism, can no longer be briefly explained in a satisfactory manner. Especially if objects are not directly perceived by our senses. It is these fundamental concepts that electric charge refers to.

Let's first try to figure out what an electric charge

, and what is hidden behind the statement is
that this body or particle has an electric charge
.

You know that all bodies are built from the smallest particles, indivisible into simpler (as far as science now knows) particles, which are therefore called elementary

. All elementary particles have mass and due to this they are attracted to each other. According to the law of universal gravitation, the force of attraction decreases relatively slowly as the distance between them increases: inversely proportional to the square of the distance. In addition, most elementary particles, although not all, have the ability to interact with each other with a force that also decreases in inverse proportion to the square of the distance, but this force is a huge number of times greater than the force of gravity. Thus, in the hydrogen atom, schematically shown in Figure 1, the electron is attracted to the nucleus (proton) with a force 1039 times greater than the force of gravitational attraction.

Rice. 1

If particles interact with each other with forces that slowly decrease with increasing distance and are many times greater than the forces of gravity, then these particles are said to have an electric charge. The particles themselves are called charged

.
There are particles without an electric charge, but there is no electric charge without a particle
.

Interactions between charged particles are called electromagnetic

. When we say that electrons and protons are electrically charged, this means that they are capable of interactions of a certain type (electromagnetic), and nothing more. The lack of charge on the particles means that it does not detect such interactions. Electric charge determines the intensity of electromagnetic interactions, just as mass determines the intensity of gravitational interactions. Electric charge is the second (after mass) most important characteristic of elementary particles, which determines their behavior in the surrounding world.

Thus

Electric charge

is a physical scalar quantity that characterizes the property of particles or bodies to enter into electromagnetic force interactions.

Electric charge is denoted by the letters q

or
Q.
_

Just as in mechanics the concept of a material point is often used, which makes it possible to significantly simplify the solution of many problems, when studying the interaction of charges, the concept of a point charge is effective. Point charge

- this is a charged body whose dimensions are significantly less than the distance from this body to the observation point and other charged bodies. In particular, if they talk about the interaction of two point charges, they thereby assume that the distance between the two charged bodies under consideration is significantly greater than their linear dimensions.

Introduction

You deal with electricity all the time. You have seen lightning, you illuminate a room with a light bulb, an electric heater produces heat - all these phenomena are associated with the movement of an electric charge. You also encountered a stationary electric charge when you got electrified hair after combing. They scatter in different directions. Without exaggeration, electric charges are found everywhere; any substance is made up of them! In this lesson we will find out what we know about charges. As you know, there are two types of charges in nature - positive and negative. Like charges attract, like charges repel. This interaction occurs at any distance. How then do they interact? For this there is an electric field. There is such a field around each charge, and if another charge hits it, it begins to “feel” this field: forces of attraction or repulsion begin to act on it, respectively.

There is much that is unobservable in nature. For example, we do not see the wind, but we see how it sways the branches of the trees. We don't see temperature, but we see how heated bodies expand. By the expansion of, for example, mercury in a thermometer, we can measure temperature (see Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Expansion of mercury

That is, we observe the manifestation of something and, on the basis of these observations, we judge what we do not directly observe. We also study charge by its manifestation. We do not see the charges, but we observe their interaction. One charge acts on another at a distance through an electric field. A charge field is a space where a force will act on other charges.

The interaction of bodies through a field is already familiar to us. A body with mass creates a gravitational field around itself, which manifests itself in its action on another body with mass. Their interaction obeys the law of universal gravitation (see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Interaction of massive bodies

Law of Gravity

A gravitational field arises around a body with mass. Through this field, masses interact and attract. The force of their attraction is proportional to the size of each of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (see Fig. 3):

– constant, gravitational constant, is equal to .

Rice. 3. The law of universal gravitation

The square of the distance appears in many physical formulas, so this allows us to talk about a law relating the magnitude of the effect to the square of the distance from the source of influence:

This proportionality is valid for gravitational, electrical, magnetic action, sound force, light, radiation propagating from a source. This is, of course, due to the fact that the surface area of ​​the sphere of distribution of the effect increases in proportion to the square of the distance (see Fig. 4). This will look natural if you remember that the area of ​​a sphere is proportional to the square of the radius:

and then it is clear that the force of action from a source far from it should be distributed over a sphere of increasingly larger radius.

Rice. 4. The area of ​​the sphere of distribution of the effect increases with increasing radius of the sphere

So, electric charges interact through the electric field that they create around themselves.

Electric charge of an elementary particle

The electric charge of an elementary particle is not a special “mechanism” in the particle that could be removed from it, decomposed into its component parts and reassembled. The presence of an electric charge on an electron and other particles only means the existence of certain interactions between them.

In nature there are particles with charges of opposite signs. The charge of a proton is called positive

, and the electron is
negative
. The positive sign of a charge on a particle does not mean, of course, that it has any special advantages. The introduction of charges of two signs simply expresses the fact that charged particles can both attract and repel. If the charge signs are the same, the particles repel, and if the charge signs are different, they attract.

There is currently no explanation for the reasons for the existence of two types of electric charges. In any case, no fundamental differences are found between positive and negative charges. If the signs of the electric charges of particles changed to the opposite, then the nature of electromagnetic interactions in nature would not change.

Positive and negative charges are very well balanced in the Universe. And if the Universe is finite, then its total electric charge is, in all likelihood, equal to zero.

The most remarkable thing is that the electric charge of all elementary particles is strictly the same in magnitude. There is a minimum charge called elementary

, which all charged elementary particles possess. The charge can be positive, like a proton, or negative, like an electron, but the charge modulus is the same in all cases.

It is impossible to separate part of the charge, for example, from an electron. This is perhaps the most surprising thing. No modern theory can explain why the charges of all particles are the same, and is not able to calculate the value of the minimum electric charge. It is determined experimentally using various experiments.

In the 1960s, after the number of newly discovered elementary particles began to grow alarmingly, it was hypothesized that all strongly interacting particles are composite. More fundamental particles were called quarks. What was striking was that quarks should have a fractional electric charge: 1/3 and 2/3 of the elementary charge. To build protons and neutrons, two types of quarks are enough. And their maximum number, apparently, does not exceed six.

Charge conservation law and gauge invariance[ | code]

Physical theory states that each conservation law is based on a corresponding fundamental principle of symmetry. The laws of conservation of energy, momentum and angular momentum are associated with the properties of space-time symmetries. The laws of conservation of electric, baryon and lepton charges are associated not with the properties of space-time, but with the symmetry of physical laws regarding phase transformations in the abstract space of quantum mechanical operators and state vectors. Charged fields in quantum field theory are described by the complex wave functionϕ(x)=|ϕ(x)|eiψ(x){\displaystyle \phi (x)=|\phi (x)|e^{i\psi (x)} }, where x is the space-time coordinate. Particles with opposite charges correspond to field functions that differ in the sign of the phase ψ{\displaystyle \psi }, which can be considered an angular coordinate in some fictitious two-dimensional “charge space”. The charge conservation law is a consequence of the invariance of the Lagrangian under a global gauge transformation of the type ϕ′=eiαQϕ{\displaystyle \phi '=e^{i\alpha Q}\phi }, where Q is the charge of the particle described by the field ϕ{\displaystyle \phi } , and α{\displaystyle \alpha } is an arbitrary real number, which is a parameter and does not depend on the space-time coordinates of the particle. Such transformations do not change the modulus of the function, so they are called unitary U(1).

Unit of measurement of electric charge

It is impossible to create a macroscopic standard of a unit of electric charge, similar to the standard of length - a meter, due to the inevitable leakage of charge. It would be natural to take the charge of an electron as one (this is now done in atomic physics). But at the time of Coulomb, the existence of electrons in nature was not yet known. In addition, the electron's charge is too small and therefore difficult to use as a standard.

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of charge is the coulomb

set using the current unit:

1 coulomb (C) is the charge passing through the cross-section of a conductor in 1 s at a current of 1 A.

A charge of 1 C is very large. Two such charges at a distance of 1 km would repel each other with a force slightly less than the force with which the globe attracts a load weighing 1 ton. Therefore, it is impossible to impart a charge of 1 C to a small body (about a few meters in size). Repelling from each other, charged particles would not be able to stay on such a body. No other forces exist in nature that would be capable of compensating for Coulomb repulsion under these conditions. But in a conductor that is generally neutral, it is not difficult to set a charge of 1 C in motion. Indeed, in an ordinary light bulb with a power of 100 W at a voltage of 127 V, a current is established that is slightly less than 1 A. At the same time, in 1 s a charge almost equal to 1 C passes through the cross-section of the conductor.

Properties of static electricity

Static electricity is a complex of phenomena associated with the electrification of bodies.

The main causes of static electricity

1. Contact between two bodies and their separation (including friction, winding/unwinding, etc.).
2. Rapid temperature change (for example, when the material is placed in the oven).
3. High energy radiation, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, strong electric fields.
4. Cutting operations, that is, friction (for example, on cutting machines or paper cutting machines).
5. Induction (static charge causes the appearance of an electric field).

Contact between objects and their subsequent separation from each other is the most common cause of static electricity in industrial environments. A static charge is generated when unwinding or winding rolled materials, when moving their layers relative to each other. In everyday life, the most common causes of static electricity are friction and induction

Electrometer

An electrometer is used to detect and measure electrical charges.

. The electrometer consists of a metal rod and a pointer that can rotate around a horizontal axis (Fig. 2). The rod with the arrow is fixed in a plexiglass sleeve and placed in a cylindrical metal case, closed with glass covers.

Operating principle of the electrometer

. Let's touch the positively charged rod to the electrometer rod. We will see that the electrometer needle deviates by a certain angle (see Fig. 2). The rotation of the arrow is explained by the fact that when a charged body comes into contact with the electrometer rod, electrical charges are distributed along the arrow and the rod. Repulsive forces acting between like electric charges on the rod and the pointer cause the pointer to rotate. Let's electrify the ebonite rod again and touch the electrometer rod with it again. Experience shows that with increasing electric charge on the rod, the angle of deviation of the arrow from the vertical position increases. Consequently, by the angle of deflection of the electrometer needle, one can judge the value of the electric charge transferred to the electrometer rod.

Rice. 2

History of discoveries

Even in ancient times, it was noticed that if you rub amber on silk material, the stone will begin to attract light objects. William Gilbert studied these experiments until the end of the 16th century. In the report on the work done, he called objects that can attract other bodies electrified.

The following discoveries were made in 1729 by Charles Dufay, observing the behavior of bodies when they rubbed against various materials. Thus, he proved the existence of two types of charges: the first are formed by rubbing resin on wool, and the second by rubbing glass on silk. Following logic, he called them “resin” and “glass”. Benjamin Franklin also explored this issue and introduced the concepts of positive and negative charge. In the illustration - B. Franklin catches lightning.

Charles Coulomb, whose portrait is shown below, discovered a law that was later called Coulomb's Law. He described the interaction of two point charges. He was also able to measure the value and invented a torsion balance for this, which we will talk about later.

And already at the beginning of the last century, Robert Millikan, as a result of experiments, proved their discreteness. This means that the charge of each body is equal to an integer multiple of the elementary electric charge, and the electron is the elementary charge.

Properties of electric charge

The totality of all known experimental facts allows us to highlight the following properties of the charge:

• There are two types of electric charges, conventionally called positive and negative. Positively
  charged bodies are those that act on other charged bodies in the same way as glass electrified by friction with silk.
  
  Bodies that act in the same way as ebonite electrified by friction with wool are called negatively The choice of the name “positive” for charges arising on glass, and “negative” for charges on ebonite, is completely random.
• Charges can be transferred (for example, by direct contact) from one body to another. Unlike body mass, electric charge is not an integral characteristic of a given body. The same body under different conditions can have a different charge.
• Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. This also reveals the fundamental difference between electromagnetic forces and gravitational ones. Gravitational forces are always attractive forces.
• An important property of an electric charge is its discreteness
  .
  This means that there is some smallest, universal, further indivisible elementary charge, so the charge q
  of any body is a multiple of this elementary charge: \(~q = N \cdot e\) , where
  N
  is an integer,
  e
  is the value of the elementary charge.
  According to modern concepts, this charge is numerically equal to the electron charge e
  = 1.6∙10-19 C.
  Since the value of the elementary charge is very
  small, for most of the charged bodies observed and
  used
  in practice, the number
  N
  is very large, and the discrete nature of the charge change does not appear. Therefore, it is believed that under normal conditions the electric charge of bodies changes almost continuously.
• Law of conservation of electric charge
  .
  Inside a closed system, for any interactions, the algebraic sum of electric charges remains constant:
  \(~q_1 + q_2 + \ldots + q_n = \operatorname{const}\) .
  an isolated (or closed) system
  a system of bodies into which electric charges are not introduced from the outside and are not removed from it.

Nowhere and never in nature does an electric charge of the same sign appear or disappear. The appearance of a positive electric charge is always accompanied by the appearance of an equal negative charge. Neither positive nor negative charge can disappear separately; they can only mutually neutralize each other if they are equal in modulus.

This is how elementary particles can transform into each other. But always during the birth of charged particles, the appearance of a pair of particles with charges of the opposite sign is observed. The simultaneous birth of several such pairs can also be observed. Charged particles disappear, turning into neutral ones, also only in pairs. All these facts leave no doubt about the strict implementation of the law of conservation of electric charge.

The reason for the conservation of electric charge is still unknown.

The history of the concept of “electric charge” is described. The long-term and thorny path of development of ideas about electric charge is considered, which led to the need to apply the ether-dynamic concept, on the basis of which this article reveals the physical essence of electric charge.

Introduction. In modern theoretical and practical physics, the concept of electric charge is one of the most important. Understanding the nature and basic laws of electricity, the processes of interaction of elementary particles and, practically, the entire picture of the world depends on its representation. The minimum value of electric charge is the elementary electric charge [1], today it is one of the fundamental constants of physics.

However, neither classical electrodynamics, nor quantum mechanics, nor physics in general can answer the question: “what is the physical nature of the electric charge directly related to the force interactions between individual microparticles and macroscopic bodies?” [2].

The lack of understanding of the essence of electric charge can be traced from the moment it was introduced into scientific use to the present day. Modern academic and educational literature diligently avoids this “dark” concept in physics. “You can randomly turn to any academic publication to make sure that charge as a physical category does not have a clear interpretation”[2]. In the modern physical encyclopedia [3] there is no article with this title, and the interpretation does not go beyond the concepts of 400 years ago: “...The charge of an electrified glass rod was called positive, and the charge of a resin rod (in particular, amber rod) was called negative. ..."

In connection with the above, the natural question becomes: what is the reason for this state of affairs in understanding the essence of electric charge? Obviously, the answer must be sought either in errors made in the presentation of this concept, or in knowledge of the depths of physical matter that physics has not yet reached, or in both combined.

For the first time, the concepts of charge, positive charge and negative charge were introduced into use by B. Franklin [4]. Franklin put forward the so-called unitary theory of electricity, according to which all matter contains only one kind of electrical substance - electrical fluid. In their normal state, bodies contain a normal amount of electrical fluid and are electrically neutral. Franklin suggested calling bodies that have an excess of electrical fluid positively, and bodies that contain less electrical fluid than normal - negatively electrified.

In Franklin's view, charge is a measure of the amount of electrification of the body, and a positive charge is an excess, and a negative charge is a deficiency from a certain norm of the amount of electrification. Subsequently, Franklin’s ideas were transformed: a positive charge acquired a “+” sign, and a negative charge acquired a “-” sign, the concept of “excess” acquired the concept of more than zero, and “deficiency” - less than zero.

This circumstance became the first mistake in the presentation of electric charge, since no one had ever provided evidence of the existence of negative electric charges in nature. The negative electric charge of an electron is a myth created at the beginning of the twentieth century [5]. It was followed by erroneous ideas about the discreteness of the electric charge, about the elementary electric charge as a fundamental physical constant, about the equality of the charges of the electron and proton, about the free electron - the carrier of the electric charge [6], etc.

In addition, in modern physics, there is an uncertainty in the concept of electric charge [7], generally due to the fact that the concept of “charge” has two inadequate meanings: charge as a physical object and charge as a physical quantity, i.e., as a property of a physical object. For example, the free encyclopedia Wikipedia gives the following definition [8]: “Electric charge (amount of electricity) is a physical scalar quantity that determines the ability of bodies to be a source of electromagnetic fields and take part in electromagnetic interaction.”

The concept of an electric charge, as a physical object, often appears in educational literature, for example, in [9]: “Despite the abundance of various substances in nature, there are only two types of electric charges: charges similar to those arising on glass rubbed on silk, and charges similar to those appearing on ebonite rubbed against fur. The first of them are called positive charges, and the second are called negative charges. Consequently, like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.”

Thus, the above idea of ​​electric charge convincingly proves the need to reveal the physical essence of the electric charge and interpret electrical processes and phenomena based on the revealed essence of the electric charge, taking into account the identified errors.

Historical background . Through the efforts of modern scientists, the history of the development of ideas about electric charge has been reduced to several fragments related to the activities of the Western school of physics, starting with W. Hilbert (1544 - 1603) and ending with R. Millikan (1868 - 1953) [10,11]. The works of these scientists served as the foundation for modern ideas about electric charge [8,10], however, it is impossible to draw a conclusion from them about the nature of the electric charge. For example, [12]: ”Millikan: “I will ask you to listen to the experimenter’s answer to a basic and often asked question: what is electricity? This answer is naive, but at the same time simple and definite. The experimenter states first of all that he knows nothing about the last essence of electricity.”

In general, an assessment of the state of representation of the concept of electric charge in historical retrospect is given in [12], on the basis of which the following conclusion was made: “Thus, either the lack of understanding of the nature of electric charge is frankly recognized (Einstein, Eddington, Okun, Millikan, Weiskopf) , either the concept of charge is not defined (Tamm, as well as in most textbooks on electricity), or the concept of charge is defined through the concept of the electromagnetic field, forming a logical circle (Maxwell, Landau, Dirac), or it is simply stated that electric charge is a special, primary property tel (Lorenz, Pakhomov, Levich).”

The author of the work [12] (L. A. Shchipitsin), based on the generalized concept of charge in hydrodynamics, proposed his own idea of ​​\u200b\u200belectric charge: “If the speed of a body or a flow of a medium changes with time (for example, periodically), then the effective volume of the body changes accordingly . Then, from dimensional considerations, the following expression is obtained for the electric charge:

e = const ρ1/2 ύ (1.6)

where the dot over the value of the effective volume ύ denotes differentiation with respect to time. The value is const ≈ 1. ” That is, “the charge is determined by the rate of change in the volume of its carrier, possibly periodic.”

This idea contradicts modern concepts of elementary particles, which are carriers of electric charge. In particular, the photon parameters [13] (including volume) are functions of the wavelength, and for a specific photon, a certain wavelength, they are constant. That is, the electric charge of a photon is a function of the wavelength and for a photon of a certain wavelength does not depend on its volume.

The advantage of the above representation is that the essence of the electric charge is considered from the need to take into account the environment in which the carrier of the electric charge is located: “By excluding the environment from consideration, it is impossible to understand the essence of the “charge”.”

From the historical review discussed above, one work was omitted that is of fundamental importance in revealing the essence of the electric charge. This is the report of N. P. Kasterin (1869-1947) “Generalization of the basic equations of aerodynamics and electrodynamics” at a special meeting at the USSR Academy of Sciences. 12/9/1936 USSR Academy of Sciences. [14]

“Thanks to” the activities of the Physics Group and the Mathematics Group of the USSR Academy of Sciences [15], which subjected his work to unfounded and biased criticism, and his own obstruction, access to Kasterin’s ideas was closed for 80 years, in particular, in understanding the essence of the electric charge.

The essence of Kasterin’s work was as follows: “without changing the foundations of classical mechanics and physics (emphasized by Kasterin - A.A.), look for a second approximation for both the electromagnetic field equations and aerodynamics, and see if these more general equations can embrace the entire set of facts in the field of electromagnetism and aerodynamics that have been firmly established experimentally.”

The main provisions of the theory are formulated as follows:

a special medium is responsible for the transmission of electromagnetic interaction; At the same time, the classical equations of aero- (hydro-) dynamics are applicable to this medium; under certain conditions, this medium can not only transmit electromagnetic interaction, but also literally form from itself “weighty matter” - all types of elementary particles.

A special medium in Kasterin’s view is a “supergas”, consisting of specific “long rods” corresponding to “Faraday tubes”, and, accordingly, in terms of the number of degrees of freedom, having an adiabatic coefficient of 2.

Considering the vortices in the “supergas”, Kasterin obtains the following main results: the electric field strength corresponds to the angular velocity of rotation of the vortex, the magnetic field strength corresponds to the centripetal acceleration of the vortex moving in a circle, the speed of light corresponds to the speed of sound for a system of vortices.

Based on these results, Kasterin builds models of elementary particles (electron and proton), considering them as “vortex tubes wrapped around a cone, rotating around the axis of the cone.”

Based on these ideas, Kasterin substantiates a large number of real physical phenomena, including electric charge:

“As a result, we obtain the following relation for the elementary electric charge:

ε = ( c 0 2 /2 πρ 0 )1/2 ∙ ( ρσλ )

i.e., the elementary electric charge ε is proportional to the mass ρ distributed over the cross section of the elementary vortex σλ . For the first time, the theory succeeds in “materializing” the electric charge, but at the same time it is obvious that the very concept of “charge” loses its former meaning, and it can only be used as a measure of the elementary “flow of electrical induction.”

The physical essence of electric charge . Sarcasm and irony in work [15], admitted when analyzing Kasterin’s ideas, once again emphasizes not only their misunderstanding, but also the corresponding attitude of modern physics towards theories and ideas that go beyond the scope of traditional physics. The result of this relationship is, for example, the representation of elementary particles, carriers of electric charge: an electron is a blurry spot that has no structure, a photon is a particle that has no mass with an electric charge equal to zero, a neutrino is a particle that has no electric charge, etc.

Nevertheless, Kasterin's ideas live and develop. Evidence of this is the modern alternative to quantum relativistic physics - the etherodynamic concept [16], the paradigm of physics of the 21st century.

According to this concept, a proton and an electron are duetons [17], paired torus-shaped vortex formations, from the middle of which cone-shaped streams of ether flow out (in the case of a proton) or flow in (in the case of an electron). These cone-shaped flows of ether are called jets, which physically realize the interconnection and interaction of the proton and electron with each other. This interaction is in the nature of an electric (Coulomb) force.

Thus, the jets of a proton-electron pair (an interconnected and interacting set of proton, electron and jets) are a real physical object that determines the manifestation of elementary electric force, which, accordingly, can be taken as the basis for representing the physical essence of an electric charge as a measure of electric force .

The proton-electron pair functions as a physical object in the ether flow. The radius of the smallest atom of matter, the helium atom, is [18] 31∙10-12 m (the radius of the orbit of the first (outer) electron), and the radius of the proton is 0.875∙10-15 m [19]. Data on the orbital radii of the electron and proton show that the sizes of the electron and proton bodies are significantly less than the distance between the proton and the electron, which indicates that the technique for revealing the essence of the electric charge, applied in [12], is not applicable to the proton-electron pair. However, the ideas of theoretical hydrodynamics [20], in particular, the ideas of a proton-electron pair as a source-drain system, have their place. In this case, the inner surface of the proton (dueton) body can be represented as the source of the ether flow, and the inner surface of the electron body as the drain of the ether flow. According to the concepts of gas (hydro-) dynamics, the internal gas pressure in the drainage area is always less than the external pressure of the ether covering the proton-electron pair. As a result of the difference in pressure between the external ether and the ether flow in the drain area, a force is formed directed towards the gas flow in the drain area. This force displaces the electron towards the proton and is interpreted as electrical.

To analyze the movement of ether in the jet, we take the flow of ether as one-dimensional [21], i.e. we will neglect changes in the magnitude and direction of the velocity, as well as changes in other elements of the flow (pressure, density, etc.) along the section perpendicular to the flow axis. Let's abstract from the forces of friction inside the ether. Then the basic equations of one-dimensional stationary motion [21] will be the following:

a) Euler's equation:

u du/dx = — 1/ρ dp/dx, (1)

b) continuity equation:

ρ u S = const, (2)

where u is the ether flow velocity, ρ is the jet ether density, S is the jet cross section.

The pressure in the flow can change even when there are no frictional forces and the flow does not perform mechanical work. To do this, it is enough to change the flow speed. This can be achieved, for example, by drawing a flow of electrons into the body.

Taking into account the continuity equation (2), equation (1) can be written in the form

u du = — 1/ρ dp, (3)

or

dp = — ρ u du. (4)

From equation (3) it is clear that in the absence of friction forces, flow acceleration is possible only by reducing the static pressure.

Let's transform expression (4):

dp S = — ρ S u du,

Fp = — ρ S u2, (5)

where Fp is the force of shift of the electron to the proton, the minus sign indicates that the force is directed in the direction opposite to the movement of the jet ether flow.

Electric (Coulomb) force according to Coulomb's law can be expressed as:

Fk = k q2 / r2, (6)

where k = 1 / 2πε0 is the proportionality coefficient, q is the electric charge transferred from the proton to the electron, i.e. the jet charge, r is the jet length.

From the equality of these forces it follows:

Fk = Fp,

k q2 / r2 = ρ S u2.

q2 = 1/k ρS u2r2 (7)

q = (1/k ρS u2r2)1/2,

q = (1/ k )1/2 u r ( ρ S )1/2 . (8)

Expression (8) reveals the physical essence of the electric charge:

electric charge is a value proportional to the square root of the mass of the ether flow ρ distributed over a section S , length r , moving with speed u .

Thus, the magnitude of the electric charge is defined as a measure of the flow of ether moving at a speed equivalent to the second sound speed of the ether [16].

In view of the fact that all elementary particles, according to the ether-dynamic concept, are vortex closed rings of ether flows, the property “electric charge” is inherent in all elementary particles.

Expression (7) shows that from the point of view of mathematics, the magnitude of the electric charge q has two solutions: (+ q ) and (- q ). However, from the point of view of physics, the solution (- q ) has no physical meaning. For example, for a photon, the solution to equation (7) should mean that in nature there simultaneously exist photons, both with a positive sign of the electric charge and with a negative one, which contradicts reality: there is no evidence of the existence of photons with a negative electric charge.

This circumstance allows us to conclude: in nature there are no physical objects with a negative electric charge .

From the physical essence of electric charge it also follows:

• electric charge, like the mass to which it is proportional, is a quantity of definite sign, i.e. positive;
• the electric charge of an electron is a positive quantity;
• the electric charge of an electron is less than the electric charge of a proton (the mass of a proton is 1836 times the mass of an electron);
• electric charge as a measure of ether flow cannot be discrete;
• Electric charge is a property inherent in all, without exception, elementary particles.

Conclusions. The concept of electric charge is a fundamental concept in physics. The first “materialized” discovery of the physical essence of the electric charge was made by the Russian-Soviet scientist N.P. Kasterin. Further development of N.P. Kasterin’s idea became possible only on the basis of the etherodynamic concept, which made it possible to clarify the definition of the essence of the electric charge given by Kasterin.

The magnitude of the electric charge is defined as a measure of the flow of ether moving at a speed equivalent to the second sound speed of the ether (3∙108 m/s).

The ether-dynamic essence of the electric charge made it possible to identify a number of erroneous early ideas associated with the essence of the electric charge, and to determine ways to eliminate them.

Literature:

1. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Elementary electric charge
2. Shalyapin A.L., Stukalov V.I. INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS AND ATOMIC PHYSICS. Publishing house UMC UPI, EKATERINBURG 2006, 490 p.
3. https://femto.com.ua/ Encyclopedia of physics and technology
4. Franklin V. Experiments and observations on electricity. Translation from English by V. A. Alekseev. Editorial, introductory article and comments by B. S. Sotin, Ed. USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1956, 271 p.
5. Lyamin V. S., Lyamin D. V. The myth of the discovery of electrons.
6. https://nauka2000.com/ Lyamin V. S., Lyamin D. V. ABOUT ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ITS PROPERTIES.
7. https://www.kogan.iri-as.org/stat/Charge_of_body.pdf Kogan I.Sh. About the concepts of “elementary charge” and “body charge”.
8. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki Electric charge.
9. Kalashnikov S.G. Electricity: Textbook. allowance. - 6th ed., stereot. - M.:

FIZMATLIT, 2003. - 624 p.

1. Electrodynamics : course of lectures and practical work. classes: textbook. manual for universities in specialty 010701 “Physics” / S. A. Zapryagaev. - Voronezh: VSU Publishing House, 2005. - 535 p.
2. Terletsky Ya.P., Rybakov Yu.P. Electrodynamics: Textbook. manual for university students - M.: Vyssh. school, 1980. - 335 p.
3. Shchipitsin L. A. Hydrodynamic interpretation of electrodynamics and quantum mechanics. M.: Publishing house MPI, 1990. – 49 p.
4. Lyamin V. S., Lyamin D. V. The physical essence of Planck’s constant.
5. https://sceptic-ratio.narod.ru/po/kasterin-1.htm Kasterin N. P. Generalization of the basic equations of aerodynamics and electrodynamics.
6. https://bourabai.kz/timiryazev/andreev.htm Andreev A.V. Alternative physics in the USSR: twenties-forties.
7. Atsyukovsky V.A. General ether dynamics. Modeling the structures of matter and fields based on the concept of gas-like ether. Second edition. M.: Energoatomizdat, 2003. 584 p.
8. https://logicphysic.narod.ru/ YakovlevV. B. Logic of phenomena.
9. https://www.fxyz.ru/ Radii of atoms of elements.
10. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Proton.
11. Milne-Thomson L. M. Theoretical hydrodynamics. M., "Mir", 1964. 670 p.

Loytsyansky L.G. Mechanics of liquid and gas. Textbook for universities. — 7th ed., rev. - M.: Bustard, 2003. - 840 p.

Lyamin V.S. , Lyamin D. V. Lvov

Electrification of the body

Macroscopic bodies are, as a rule, electrically neutral. An atom of any substance is neutral because the number of electrons in it is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Positively and negatively charged particles are connected to each other by electrical forces and form neutral systems.

A large body is charged when it contains an excess number of elementary particles with the same charge sign. Negative

the charge of a body is due to the excess of electrons compared to protons, and
the positive
charge is due to their deficiency.

In order to obtain an electrically charged macroscopic body or, as they say, to electrify

it, you need to separate part of the negative charge from the positive charge associated with it.

The easiest way to do this is with friction. If you run a comb through your hair, a small part of the most mobile charged particles - electrons - will move from the hair to the comb and charge it negatively, and the hair will become positively charged. When electrified by friction, both bodies acquire charges of opposite sign, but equal in magnitude.

It is very simple to electrify bodies using friction. But explaining how this happens turned out to be a very difficult task.

1 version

. When electrifying bodies, close contact between them is important. Electrical forces hold electrons inside the body. But for different substances these forces are different. During close contact, a small part of the electrons of the substance in which the connection of electrons with the body is relatively weak passes to another body. The electron movements do not exceed the interatomic distances (10-8 cm). But if the bodies are separated, then both of them will be charged. Since the surfaces of bodies are never perfectly smooth, the close contact between bodies necessary for transition is established only on small areas of the surfaces. When bodies rub against each other, the number of areas with close contact increases, and thereby the total number of charged particles passing from one body to another increases. But it is not clear how electrons can move in such non-conducting substances (insulators) as ebonite, plexiglass and others. They are bound in neutral molecules.

2 version

. Using the example of an ionic LiF crystal (insulator), this explanation looks like this. During the formation of a crystal, various types of defects arise, in particular vacancies - unfilled spaces at the nodes of the crystal lattice. If the number of vacancies for positive lithium ions and negative fluorine ions is not the same, then the crystal will be charged in volume upon formation. But the charge as a whole cannot be retained by the crystal for long. There is always a certain amount of ions in the air, and the crystal will pull them out of the air until the charge of the crystal is neutralized by a layer of ions on its surface. Different insulators have different space charges, and therefore the charges of the surface layers of ions are different. During friction, the surface layers of ions are mixed, and when the insulators are separated, each of them becomes charged.

Can two identical insulators, for example the same LiF crystals, be electrified by friction? If they have the same own space charges, then no. But they can also have different own charges if the crystallization conditions were different and a different number of vacancies appeared. As experience has shown, electrification during friction of identical crystals of ruby, amber, etc. can actually occur. However, the above explanation is unlikely to be correct in all cases. If bodies consist, for example, of molecular crystals, then the appearance of vacancies in them should not lead to charging of the body.

Another way to electrify bodies is to expose them to various radiations.

(in particular, ultraviolet, x-ray and
γ
-radiation). This method is most effective for electrifying metals, when, under the influence of radiation, electrons are knocked out from the surface of the metal and the conductor acquires a positive charge.

Electrification through influence

.
The conductor is charged not only upon contact with a charged body, but also when it is at some distance. Let's explore this phenomenon in more detail. Let's hang light sheets of paper on an insulated conductor (Fig. 3). If the conductor is not charged at first, the leaves will be in the non-deflected position. Let us now bring an insulated metal ball, highly charged, to the conductor, for example, using a glass rod. We will see that the sheets suspended at the ends of the body, at points a
and
b
, are deflected, although the charged body does not touch the conductor.
The conductor was charged through influence, which is why the phenomenon itself was called “ electrification through influence
” or “
electrical induction
”.
Charges obtained through electrical induction are called induced
or
induced
.
The leaves suspended at the middle of the body, at points a
' and
b
', do not deviate.
This means that induced charges arise only at the ends of the body, and its middle remains neutral, or uncharged. By bringing an electrified glass rod to the sheets suspended at points a
and
b
, it is easy to verify that the sheets at point
b
repel from it, and the sheets at point
a
are attracted. This means that at the remote end of the conductor a charge of the same sign appears as on the ball, and on nearby parts charges of a different sign arise. By removing the charged ball, we will see that the leaves will go down. The phenomenon proceeds in a completely similar way if we repeat the experiment by charging the ball negatively (for example, using sealing wax).

Rice. 3

From the point of view of electronic theory, these phenomena are easily explained by the existence of free electrons in a conductor. When a positive charge is applied to a conductor, electrons are attracted to it and accumulate at the nearest end of the conductor. A certain number of “excess” electrons appear on it, and this part of the conductor becomes negatively charged. At the far end there is a lack of electrons and, therefore, an excess of positive ions: a positive charge appears here.

When a negatively charged body is brought close to a conductor, electrons accumulate at the far end, and an excess of positive ions is produced at the near end. After removing the charge that causes the movement of electrons, they are again distributed throughout the conductor, so that all parts of it are still uncharged.

The movement of charges along the conductor and their accumulation at its ends will continue until the influence of excess charges formed at the ends of the conductor balances the electrical forces emanating from the ball, under the influence of which the redistribution of electrons occurs. The absence of charge at the middle of the body shows that the forces emanating from the ball and the forces with which the excess charges accumulated at the ends of the conductor act on free electrons are balanced here.

Induced charges can be separated if, in the presence of a charged body, the conductor is divided into parts. Such an experience is depicted in Fig. 4. In this case, the displaced electrons can no longer return back after removing the charged ball; since there is a dielectric (air) between both parts of the conductor. Excess electrons are distributed throughout the left side; lack of electrons at point b

is partially replenished from the region of point
b
', so that each part of the conductor turns out to be charged: the left - with a charge opposite in sign to the charge of the ball, the right - with a charge of the same name as the charge of the ball.
Not only the leaves at points a
and
b
, but also the previously stationary leaves at points
a
' and
b
'.

Rice. 4

Torsion scales by Charles Coulomb

This device, developed by Coulomb in 1777, helped to derive the dependence of the force that was later named in his honor. With its help, the interaction of point charges, as well as magnetic poles, is studied.

A torsion balance has a small silk thread placed in a vertical plane from which a balanced lever hangs. Point charges are located at the ends of the lever.

Under the influence of external forces, the lever begins to move horizontally. The lever will move in the plane until it is balanced by the elastic force of the thread.

During the movement, the lever deviates from the vertical axis by a certain angle. It is taken as d and called the angle of rotation. Knowing the value of this parameter, you can find the torque of the resulting forces.

It will be interesting➡ What is tension?

Charles Coulomb's torsion balance looks like this:

Literature

1. Burov L.I., Strelchenya V.M. Physics from A to Z: for students, applicants, tutors. – Mn.: Paradox, 2000. – 560 p.
2. Myakishev G.Ya. Physics: Electrodynamics. 10-11 grades: textbook. For in-depth study of physics / G.Ya. Myakishev, A.Z. Sinyakov, B.A. Slobodskov. – M.Zh. Bustard, 2005. – 476 p.
3. Physics: Textbook. allowance for 10th grade. school and advanced classes studied physicists/ O. F. Kabardin, V. A. Orlov, E. E. Evenchik and others; Ed. A. A. Pinsky. – 2nd ed. – M.: Education, 1995. – 415 p.
4. Elementary physics textbook: Study guide. In 3 volumes / Ed. G.S. Landsberg: T. 2. Electricity and magnetism. – M: FIZMATLIT, 2003. – 480 p.

Accumulation of electricity and knowledge about it

Visible accumulation of electricity also occurred when they put on crafts made of amber: amber beads, amber hair clips. could be no explanation for this except obvious magic After all, for the trick to be successful, it was necessary to sort the beads exclusively with clean, dry hands and while sitting in clean clothes. And clean hair, well rubbed with a hairpin, gives something beautiful and terrifying: a halo of hair sticking up. And even crackling. And even in the darkness there are flashes. This is the action of a spirit that is demanding and capricious, as well as scary and incomprehensible. But the time has come, and electrical phenomena have ceased to be the territory of the spirit.

They began to call everything simply “interaction.” That's when we started experimenting. They came up with a special machine for this (electrophoric machine), and a jar for storing electricity (Leyden jar). And a device that could already show some “equal-more-less” in relation to electricity (electroscope). All that remains is to explain all this with the help of the increasingly powerful language of formulas.

Thus, humanity has come up with the need to recognize the presence of a certain electric charge in nature. Actually, the title does not contain any discovery. Electric means associated with phenomena, the study of which began with the magic of amber . The word “charge” speaks only of vague possibilities embedded in an object, like a cannonball. It’s just clear that electricity can be somehow produced and somehow stored. And somehow it has to be measured. The same as an ordinary substance, for example, oil.

And, by analogy with substances, the smallest particles of which (atoms) have been talked about confidently since the time of Democritus , and it was decided that the charge must certainly consist of similar very small “corpuscles” - bodies. The number of which in a large charged body will give the amount of electric charge.