Thermoelectric generator

A thermoelectric generator

(
TEG
), also called
a Seebeck Generator
, is a solid state device that converts a stream of hot air (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy through a phenomenon called the
Seebeck Effect
(a form of thermoelectric effect). Thermoelectric generators work like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no moving parts. However, TEGs are typically more expensive and less effective.[1]

Thermoelectric generators can be used in power plants to convert waste heat into additional electrical power and in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators (ATGs) to increase fuel efficiency. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators use radioisotopes to create the necessary temperature differences for powered space probes.[1]

Content

• 1. History
• 2 Construction 2.1 Thermoelectric materials
• 2.2 Thermoelectric advantages
• 2.3 Thermoelectric module
• 2.4 Thermoelectric systems

Story

In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck rediscovered that a temperature gradient formed between two dissimilar conductors could produce electricity.[2][3] The thermoelectric effect is based on the fact that a temperature gradient in a conductive material results in heat flow; this leads to diffusion of charge carriers. The flow of charge carriers between the hot and cold regions, in turn, creates a voltage difference. In 1834, Jean Charles Athanas Pelletier discovered the opposite effect: the passage of an electric current through a junction of two dissimilar conductors could, depending on the direction of the current, cause it to act as a heater or a cooler.[4]

Thermoelectric effect and heat transfer in electronic systems

Thermoelectric generators, the operating principle of which is based on the integrated use of the effect of three scientists (Seebeck, Thomson, Peltier), were developed almost 150 years after discoveries that were far ahead of their time.

The thermoelectric effect consists of the following phenomenon. To cool or generate electricity, a “module” consisting of electrically connected pairs is used. Each pair consists of a semiconductor material p (S> 0) and n (S < 0). These two materials are connected by a conductor whose thermoelectric power is considered to be zero. The two branches (p and n) and all other pairs that make up the module are connected in series in the electrical circuit and in parallel in the thermal circuit. A TEG (thermoelectric generator) with this arrangement creates conditions to optimize the heat flow that passes through the module, overcoming its electrical resistance. The electric current acts in such a way that charge carriers (electrons and holes) move from a cold source to a hot source (in the thermodynamic sense) in the two legs of the pair. At the same time, they contribute to the transfer of entropy from a cold source to a hot one, to a heat flow that will resist thermal conductivity.

If the selected materials have good thermoelectric properties, this heat flow created by the movement of charge carriers will be greater than thermal conductivity. Therefore, the system will transfer heat from the cold source to the hot one and act like a refrigerator. In the case of generating electricity, the heat flow causes a displacement of charge carriers and the appearance of an electric current. The greater the temperature difference, the more electricity can be generated.

Construction

Seebeck effect in iron and copper wire thermopile
Thermoelectric power generators consist of three main components: thermoelectric materials, thermoelectric modules and thermoelectric systems interacting with the heat source.[5]

Thermoelectric materials

Main article: Thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric materials produce energy directly from heat by converting temperature differences into electrical voltage. These materials must have both high electrical conductivity (σ) and low thermal conductivity (κ) to be good thermoelectric materials. Low thermal conductivity ensures that when one side gets hot, the other side remains cold, which helps generate high voltage under temperature gradient conditions. A measure of the amount of electron flow in response to temperature differences in this material is given by the Seebeck coefficient (S). The effectiveness of a given material in generating thermoelectric energy is determined by its “virtue” ZT = S2σT / κ.

For many years, the main three semiconductors have been known for both low thermal conductivity and high power factor. bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe) and silicon germanium (SiGe). Some of these materials contain quite rare elements that make them expensive.[ citation needed

]

Today, the thermal conductivity of semiconductors can be reduced without compromising their high electrical properties using nanotechnology. This can be achieved by creating nanoscale features such as particles, wires or interfaces in bulk semiconductor materials. However, the production processes of nanomaterials are still difficult.

A thermoelectric circuit consisting of materials with different Seebeck coefficients (p-doped and n-doped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric generator.

Thermoelectric advantages

Thermoelectric generators are all-solid-state devices that do not require liquids for fuel or cooling, making them orientation independent, allowing them to be used in zero gravity or offshore environments.[6] Solid state design allows operation in harsh environments. Thermoelectric generators have no moving parts, which provides a more reliable device that does not require maintenance over a long period of time. Durability and environmental resistance have made thermoelectric devices a favorite for NASA deep space explorers among other applications.[7] One of the key advantages of thermoelectric generators outside of such specialized applications is that they can potentially be integrated into existing technologies to increase efficiency and reduce environmental impact by producing useful energy from waste heat.[8]

Thermoelectric module

A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing thermoelectric materials that produce electricity directly from heat. A thermoelectric module consists of two dissimilar thermoelectric materials connected at the ends: an n-type semiconductor (with negative charge carriers) and a p-type semiconductor (with positive charge carriers). A constant electric current will flow in a circuit when there is a temperature difference between the edges of the materials. As a rule, the magnitude of the current is directly proportional to the temperature difference:

J = − σ S ∇ T {displaystyle mathbf {J} = -sigma Sabla T}

where σ {displaystyle sigma} is the local conductivity, S is the Seebeck coefficient (also known as thermoEMF), a property of the local material, and ∇ T {displaystyle abla T} is the temperature gradient.

In practice, thermoelectric modules in power generation operate under very harsh mechanical and thermal conditions. Because they operate under very high temperature gradients, the modules are subject to large thermal stresses and strains over long periods of time. They are also susceptible to mechanical fatigue caused by a large number of thermal cycles.

Therefore, connections and materials must be selected to withstand these harsh mechanical and thermal conditions. In addition, the module must be designed so that the two thermoelectric materials are thermally parallel but electrically connected in series. The efficiency of a thermoelectric module is greatly influenced by the geometry of its design.

Thermoelectric systems

Using thermoelectric modules, a thermoelectric system generates power by drawing heat from a source such as a hot chimney. The system requires a large temperature gradient to operate, which is not easy in real-life applications. The cold side must be cooled by air or water. Heat exchangers are used on both sides of the modules to provide this heating and cooling.

There are many challenges involved in developing a reliable TEG system operating at high temperatures. Achieving high efficiency in a system requires extensive engineering design to balance the heat flow through the modules and maximize the temperature gradient between them. For this purpose, the development of heat exchanger technologies in the system is one of the most important aspects of TEG design. In addition, the system requires minimizing heat loss due to material interfaces at several locations. Another difficult constraint is to avoid large pressure differences between heating and cooling sources.

If AC power is required (for example, to power equipment designed to operate on AC power), DC power from the TE modules must pass through an inverter, reducing efficiency and increasing system cost and complexity.

Efficiency of TEG

Evaluated by efficiency. The power of a thermoelectric generator depends on two critical factors:

1. The amount of heat flow that can successfully move through the module (heat flow).
2. Temperature deltas (DT) are the temperature differences between the hot and cold sides of the generator. The larger the delta, the more efficiently it works, so the design must provide conditions for both maximum cold supply and maximum heat removal from the walls of the generator.

The term "efficiency of thermoelectric generators" is similar to the term applied to all other types of heat engines. So far it is very low and amounts to no more than 17% of the Carnot efficiency. The efficiency of a TEG generator is limited by the Carnot efficiency and in practice reaches only a few percent (2-6%) even at high temperatures. This is due to the low thermal conductivity in semiconductor materials, which is not conducive to efficient power generation. Thus, materials with low thermal conductivity, but at the same time with the highest possible electrical conductivity, are needed.

Semiconductors cope with this task better than metals, but are still very far from those indicators that would bring a thermoelectric generator to the level of industrial production (with at least 15% use of high-temperature heat). Further increase in the efficiency of TEG depends on the properties of thermoelectric materials (thermoelectrics), the search for which today is occupied by the entire scientific potential of the planet.

The development of new thermoelectrics is relatively complex and expensive, but if successful, it will cause a technological revolution in generation systems.

Efficiency

Typical TEG efficiency is around 5–8%. Older devices used bimetallic junctions and were bulky. More recent devices use highly doped semiconductors made from bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe),[17] calcium manganese oxide (Ca2Mn3O8),[18][19] or combinations thereof,[20] depending on temperature . These are solid state devices and, unlike a dynamo, have no moving parts except a fan or pump.

Do-it-yourself thermoelectric generator device

Such complex processes that take place in TEG do not stop the local “Kulibins” in their desire to join the global scientific and technical process of creating TEG. The use of homemade TEGs has been around for a long time. During the Great Patriotic War, partisans made a universal thermoelectric generator. It generated electric current to charge the radio.

With the advent of Peltier elements on the market at prices affordable for household consumers, it is possible to make a TEG yourself by following the following steps.

1. Purchase two radiators from an IT store and apply thermal paste. The latter will facilitate the connection of the Peltier element.
2. Separate radiators with any heat insulator.
3. Make a hole in the insulator to accommodate the Peltier element and wires.
4. Assemble the structure and bring the heat source (candle) to one of the radiators. The longer the heating, the more current will be generated from the home thermoelectric generator.

This device operates silently and is light in weight. The ic2 thermoelectric generator, depending on the size, can connect a mobile phone charger, turn on a small radio and LED lighting.

Currently, many well-known global manufacturers have begun producing various affordable gadgets using TEGs for motorists and travelers.

Uses

Thermoelectric generators have many applications. Often thermoelectric generators are used for low power remote applications or where they are bulkier but more efficient. heat engines such as Stirling engines would be impossible. Unlike heat engines, solid state electrical components typically used to convert thermal energy into electrical energy have no moving parts. The conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy can be accomplished using components that are maintenance-free, highly reliable, and can be used to create generators that have a long, maintenance-free life. This makes thermoelectric generators well suited for low to moderate power consumption applications in remote, uninhabited or hard to reach locations such as mountain tops, the vacuum of space, or the deep ocean.

• A common application is the use of thermoelectric generators on gas pipelines. For example, for cathodic protection, radio communications and other telemetry. On gas pipelines with power consumption up to 5 kW, thermal generators are preferable to other energy sources. Gas pipeline generator manufacturers include Gentherm Global Power Technologies (formerly Global Thermoelectric) (Calgary, Canada) and TELGEN (Russia).
• Thermoelectric generators are mainly used as remote and self-contained power generators for uninhabited sites. They are the most reliable power generators in these situations because they have no moving parts (so they require virtually no maintenance), operate day or night, operate in all weather conditions, and can operate without a battery backup. Although solar photovoltaic systems are also implemented in remote locations, solar photovoltaic systems may not be a suitable solution where solar radiation is low, i.e. in areas at higher latitudes with snow or no sunlight, in areas with a lot of clouds or tree canopy, dusty deserts, forests, etc.
• Gentherm Global Power Technologies (GPT), formerly known as Global Thermoelectric (Canada), offers Hybrid Solar-TEG solutions in which a thermoelectric generator supports the solar array so that if the solar panel fails and the backup battery goes into deep discharge , then the sensor starts the TEG as a backup power source until the Solar panel is operational again. TEG heat can be produced by a low-pressure flame powered by propane or natural gas.
• Many space probes, including the Mars Curiosity
  rover, generate electricity using a radioisotope thermoelectric generator whose heat source is a radioactive element.
• Cars and other passenger products waste heat (in exhaust and coolants). Harvesting this thermal energy using a thermoelectric generator can improve a vehicle's fuel efficiency. Thermoelectric generators have been studied to replace alternators in automobiles, demonstrating a 3.45% reduction in fuel consumption, representing billions of dollars in savings annually.[21] Projections for future improvements include up to a 10% increase in mileage for hybrid vehicles.[22] It has been stated that potential energy savings may be greater for gasoline engines than for diesel engines.[23] Read more in the article: Automotive thermoelectric generator.
• Besides automobiles, waste heat is also generated in many other places, such as industrial processes and heating (wood stoves, outdoor boilers, cooking, oil and gas fields, pipelines and remote communication towers).
• Microprocessors produce waste heat. Researchers wondered if some of this energy could be recycled.[24] (However, see below for problems that may arise.)
• Solar cells only use the high-frequency portion of the radiation and waste the low-frequency thermal energy. Several patents have been issued for the use of thermoelectric devices in tandem with solar cells.[25] The idea is to improve the efficiency of a combined solar/thermoelectric system to convert solar radiation into useful electricity.
• Thermoelectric generators have also been studied as self-contained solar thermal cells. The integration of thermoelectric generators was directly integrated into a solar thermal cell with an efficiency of 4.6%.[26]
• Maritime Applied Physics Corp. in Baltimore, Maryland, is developing a thermoelectric generator to generate electricity in the deep seafloor by exploiting the temperature difference between cold seawater and hot fluids released from hydrothermal vents, hot vents or drilled geothermal wells. A highly reliable source of seafloor electrical power is needed for ocean observatories and sensors used in geological, environmental and ocean sciences, seafloor mineral and energy resource developers, and the military. Recent studies have shown that deep sea thermoelectric generators for large power plants are also economically viable.[27]
• Anne Makosinski of British Columbia, Canada has developed several devices using Peltier tiles to collect heat (from a person's hand,[28] forehead and a hot drink[29]), which claims to produce enough electricity to power a LED to light or charge a mobile device. although the inventor admits that the brightness of LED light cannot compete with those available on the market.[30]

What is a thermoelectric generator?

This is the common name for a device that allows you to convert thermal energy into electrical energy. It should be clarified that the term “Thermal” is not entirely accurate, since heat is a method of transmission, and not a separate type of energy. This definition refers to the total kinetic energy of molecules, atoms and other structural elements that make up a substance.

Despite the fact that a thermal power plant burns fuel to produce electricity, it cannot be classified as a thermoelectric power plant. At such stations, thermal energy is first converted into kinetic energy, which is then converted into electrical energy. That is, fuel is burned to produce steam from water, which rotates the turbine of an electric generator.

Thermal power plant operation diagram

Based on the above, it should be clarified that the TEG must generate electricity without intermediate transformations.

Practical Limitations

In addition to low efficiency and relatively high cost, there are practical problems with the use of thermoelectric devices in certain types of applications, arising from relatively high electrical output resistance, which increases self-heating, and relatively low thermal conductivity, which makes them unsuitable for applications where heat removal has critical, as in the case of heat removal from electrical devices such as microprocessors.

• High Generator Output Impedance:
  To obtain output voltage levels in the range required by digital electrical devices, a common approach is to place multiple thermoelectric elements in series within the generator module. The voltages of the elements increase, but their output resistance also increases. The maximum power transfer theorem dictates that maximum power is transferred to the load when the source and load resistances are identical. For low impedance loads, close to zero, as the generator resistance increases, the power delivered to the load decreases. To reduce output impedance, some commercial devices place more individual elements in parallel and fewer in series and use a boost regulator to boost the voltage to the voltage required by the load.
• Low Thermal Conductivity:
  Because very high thermal conductivity is required to remove thermal energy from a heat source such as a digital microprocessor, the low thermal conductivity of thermoelectric generators makes them unsuitable for heat recovery.
• Cold Side Heat Removal by Air:
  In air-cooled thermoelectric applications, such as thermal energy harvesting from the crankcase of an automobile, the large amount of thermal energy that must be dissipated into the surrounding air poses a serious problem. As the temperature of the cold side of a thermoelectric generator increases, the differential operating temperature of the device decreases. As the temperature rises, the electrical resistance of the device increases, causing greater parasitic self-heating of the generator. Automobiles sometimes use an additional radiator to improve heat dissipation, although the use of an electric water pump to circulate the coolant increases the parasitic loss of the generator's overall power output. Water cooling of the cold side of a thermoelectric generator, as when generating thermoelectric energy from the hot crankcase of an inboard outboard motor, does not suffer from this disadvantage. Water is a coolant that is much easier to use than air.

Future market

Although TEG technology has been used in military and aerospace applications for decades, new TEC materials and systems are being developed to generate energy using waste heat at low or high temperatures and this could provide significant opportunities in the near future. These systems can also be scaled to any size and have lower operating and maintenance costs.

Overall, investments in TEG technology are growing rapidly. The global market for thermoelectric generators is estimated at US$320 million in 2015. According to a recent study, TEG is expected to reach $720 million in 2022 with a growth rate of 14.5%. Today, North America holds 66% market share and will remain the largest market in the near future.[31] However, growth in Asia-Pacific and Europe is projected to be relatively higher. The study found that the Asia-Pacific market will grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18.3% between 2015 and 2020 due to high demand for thermoelectric generators from the automotive industry to improve overall fuel efficiency. as industrialization increases in the region.[32]

Small-scale thermoelectric generators are also in the early stages of wearable technology research to reduce or replace charging and boost charging times. Recent research has focused on the novel development of a flexible inorganic thermoelectric, silver selenide, on a nylon substrate. Thermoelectrics present a special synergy with wearable devices, harvesting energy directly from the human body, creating a self-powered device. One project used n-type silver selenide on a nylon membrane. Silver selenide is a narrow bandgap semiconductor with high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity, making it ideal for thermoelectric applications.[33]

The low-power TEG or "subwatt" market (i.e., generating peak power up to 1 W) is a growing part of the TEG market using emerging technologies. Main applications are sensors, low power applications, etc. Internet of Things Applications. A specialist market research company reported that 100,000 units were shipped in 2014, with 9 million units expected annually by 2020.[34]

Thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectrics consist of special alloys or semiconductor compounds. Recently, electrically conductive polymers have been used for thermoelectric properties.

Requirements for thermoelectrics:

• high efficiency, which is due to low thermal conductivity and high electrical conductivity, high Seebeck coefficient;
• resistance to high temperatures and thermomechanical influences;
• accessibility and safety of the environment;
• resistance to vibrations and sudden temperature changes;
• long-term stability and low cost;
• automation of the manufacturing process.

Currently, experiments are ongoing to select optimal thermocouples, which will increase the efficiency of TEG. The thermoelectric semiconductor material is an alloy of telluride and bismuth. It was specially manufactured to provide individual blocks or elements with different "N" and "P" characteristics.

Thermoelectric materials are most often made by directional crystallization from molten or pressed powder metallurgy. Each manufacturing method has its own special advantage, but directional growth materials are the most common. In addition to bismuth tellurite (Bi 2 Te 3), there are other thermoelectric materials, including lead-tellurite (PbTe), silicon-germanium (SiGe), and bismuth-antimony (Bi-Sb) alloys that can be used in specific applications. So far, bismuth and telluride thermocouples are best suited for most TEGs.

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external reference

• Callendar, Hugh Longbourn (1911). "Thermoelectricity". Encyclopedia Britannica
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• J. Jeffrey Snyder's Small Thermoelectric Generators
• Kanellos, M. (November 24, 2008). Harnessing America's secret source of power. Retrieved from Greentech Media, October 30, 2009. Website: https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/tapping-americas-secret-power-source-5259/
• LT Journal October 2010: Ultra Low Voltage Harvester Uses Thermoelectric Generator for Battery-Free Wireless Sensors
• DIY: How to build a thermoelectric power generator from a cheap Peltier block
• Gentherm Inc.
• This device uses the cold night sky to generate electricity in the dark.